In 2000, the formal discipline of positive psychology started to exist. The basic concept of Positive Psychology was present more than a thousand years ago. The concepts were present in many religious texts and philosophical discourse. Positive Psychology is influenced by many humanistic and psychodynamic approaches. Researchers have been predating the term “positive psychology”. They are going to include such topics under the new denomination.

The term positive psychology dates back to 1954. As in 1954, Maslow’s first edition of Motivation and Personality was published. It published a final chapter titled “Toward a Positive Psychology”. Many psychologists started promoting mental health rather than treating mental illness. The psychology field has addressed the human experience using the “Disease Model”. In this, they particularly study and identify the dysfunction of an individual.

In 1988, Martin Seligman chose psychology. It is the theme for his term as president of the American Psychology Association. He stated a point in the first sentence of his book. That is “For the last half-century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only  – mental illness”. He also urged psychologists to continue the earlier psychology missions. So as to nurture talent and improve the normal life.

Development 

In 1999, the first Positive Psychology summit was held. Later in 2002, the First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place. In 2006, common people gave more attention to this. A course at Harvard University became popular. The First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place at the University of Pennsylvania in June 2009.

IPPA is an established association known as International Positive Psychology Association

Later the IPPAs missions include –

1. To continue the science of positive psychology across the globe. Also to ensure that the field continues to rest on this science.

2. To work for the effective and responsible application of positive psychology in diverse areas. Areas such as organizational psychology, counselling and clinical psychology. Also business, health, education, and coaching.

3. foster education and training in the field

Influences 

Humanistic psychologists are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm. They developed theories about human happiness. Recently they found empirical support for their theories of flourishing. It has been moved further in a variety of new directions. 

In 1984, Diener influenced people by publishing his tripartite model of subjective well being. Components of wellbeing are frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations. As it includes cognitive, affective, and contextual factors. Thus, this model has contributed to subjective well-being. Mental well being has three components that are hedonic, psychological and social well-being. Carol Ryff’s Six factor Model of Psychological Well was published in 1989. It stated that six factors are the key to well-being. The well-being factors are self-acceptance, personal growth, and purpose in life. Also environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations.  

Some view positive psychology terms as eastern thoughts. Eastern philosophy such as Buddhism, and Western psychodynamic approaches. Also, such philosophy and teachings are found in Aristotle’s teachings. His teaching cultivates moral virtue as the means of attaining happiness and well-being.

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According to the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, the interactions between the mind’s three components influence human behavior. These three components are the Id, ego, and superego. Some dynamic interactions between these three components are believed to progress through five psychosexual developmental stages. How we approach the world and the way we behave are determined by the three components of the mind.

The ID

This component of the human mind is the source of all bodily needs and wants. The Id is also the source of libido and aggression. It is present in an individual at the time of birth and creates desires and emotional impulses. A newborn child’s mind is completely ridden with Id. 

It is free from morality and the concepts of good and evil. The Id seeks immediate gratification of a human being’s basic physical urges and needs. It forms much before the development of ego in its structured form.

The super-ego

The super-ego is formed by the cultural values that are taught by parents. It is, therefore, constructed on the model of the super-ego of an individual’s parents. Over a period of time, it becomes a means of transmitting the traditions and judgements of value. It forms a part of an individual’s personality structure that is not entirely unconscious but organized. It is like a form of conscience that punishes the wrong behavior of an individual.

The super-ego does this with feelings of guilt. This is true in cases like extra-marital affairs. In such situations, this component of the mind acts just like parents, pointing out the individual’s mistake.

The ego

The ego is relatively less primitive when compared to the Id. It seeks a more rational and pragmatic approach to fulfil Id’s demands. The very purpose of this is to bring some benefits rather than bad consequences. In a way, the ego acts as a mediator between the Id and reality. As a result, an individual is able to delay the gratification of immediate needs. This helps him or her to function effectively in the real world.

Though all the functions of the ego are not conscious, it has a conscious awareness residing in it. The greatest benefit of ego is that it helps humans in organizing their thoughts so that they make sense.

According to Freud, all these three components of the mind are in constant conflict. An adult personality is a manifestation of the results of these conflicts that go on throughout childhood. A conflict in the mind can be explained through an example. 

In this example, the mind says, “I want to do that now”. The super-ego is the individual counters it by saying, “It’s not right to do that”. In response, the ego says, “Maybe we can arrive at a compromise”.

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A positive mood leads to an increase in gambling

It is important to understand how the reward system of one’s brain works. Once this is done, it becomes easier to examine the psychology of gambling. A very obvious aspect of this activity is that the outcome cannot be predicted. There’s always an excitement or thrill associated with activities with unpredictable outcomes. When an element of reward is added to such an activity, the thrill nearly doubles.

Over the years, many studies have been done on the effects of mood on gambling. Generally, they indicate that an individual tends to gamble more when his or her mood is positive. When in a good mood, he or she may also drink more alcohol while gambling. This is true with both gambling in casinos as well as indulging in the activity online.  

The gambler’s fallacy

This phenomenon is believed to have originated in the summer of 1913 at Casino de Monte-Carlo. It happened during the game of roulette, when the ball kept falling in black 26 times in a row. Those betting against black lost enormous amounts of francs as a result. All of them incorrectly assumed that the ball would fall in red after falling in black many times. 

The gambler’s fallacy is the assumption that an event is unlikely to occur again if it occurred frequently than expected. Many of the psychologists consider it as one of the cognitive biases.

An increased hope of winning

There was a study done on individuals betting on racetrack horses. Some of them were asked to estimate the chances of their favored horse winning. They were asked to do this before and after placing their bet on the horse. It was observed that they had greater expectations of their horse winning after placing the bet.

The bandwagon effect

This tendency can be understood by taking voting as an example. Some individuals vote for those parties or candidates who have higher chances of winning. This is done to ensure that they are on the side of the winner when the result is announced. So, the bandwagon effect comes from the phrase ‘jump on the bandwagon’. It indicates that people usually do what the majority is doing.

One can find this tendency in the world of gambling as well. A beginner wanting to increase the chances of winning will always bet on what most gamblers are betting on.

Superstitions in gambling

In a way, gambling is just a game of chance. Despite this fact, many of the gamblers think they can create a system or method to ensure their win. Some of them make predictions using random numbers they believe would bring them luck. A few others perform some sort of ritual to keep winning. Whatever the behavioral patterns, it is necessary to prevent an addiction to gambling. A beginner is more likely to become an addict and lose money playing the wrong games. 

Fortunately, there are some websites like Casinos Jungle that provide detailed information about the most trusted online casinos. This site also gives gambling enthusiasts the best advice on ‘responsible gambling’ and some slots to try for free. For more details visit www.casinosjungle.com

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However, it also states that moral reasoning alone is not sufficient for ethical behaviour in an individual. Both Piaget and Kohlberg claimed that morality develops over time in constructive stages:

Obedience and punishment orientation

In this stage, individuals focus on their actions and the direct consequences of those actions on them. An action is perceived as morally wrong owing to the punishment that the perpetrator is subject to. An individual remembers how he or she was punished the last time a morally wrong deed was done. 

The individual in question then refrains from repeating it again. One of the examples of this is a situation where a child is dared by his or her classmate to skip school. The child decides not to skip school fearing that he or she will be punished for doing so.

Self-interest orientation

Stage two is driven by self-interest. Right behavior is defined by whatever is convenient to the individual. It is also defined by whatever he or she thinks and believes to be in his or her best interest. Reasoning in this stage doesn’t take into consideration the needs of others. 

The Latin term ‘quid pro quo’ aptly describes this. It means giving or doing something for getting something in return. All the actions at this stage are performed to serve the individual’s own interests or needs.

Interpersonal accord and conformity

This stage of moral development is concerned with adolescents and adults. In this stage, an individual tries to conform to social standards. He or she learns that being regarded as good is beneficial for him or her. He or she becomes receptive to approval or disapproval from society. 

Moral reasoning now takes into account the consequences that an action would have on his or her social relationships. The individual understands that people tend to like him or her when he or she is not naughty. This happens despite not fully understanding the rules for his or her social role.

Authority and social-order maintaining orientation

Moral reasoning at this stage is free from the need for individual approval. He or she understands the importance of obeying laws and social conventions to maintain a functioning society. There is an inner obligation to uphold laws and rules. 

This comes usually from an understanding that if one individual violates a law, everyone will do the same. At this stage, morality is determined by an outside force.

Social contract orientation

Most of the democratic governments are based on the moral reasoning of the fifth stage. Laws are not considered as rigid official orders, but are regarded as social contracts. It is based on the fact that the world is full of different values, opinions, and rights. 

The greater good for the greatest number of people is considered important. An opinion that certain laws must be changed to promote general welfare is formed.

Universal ethical principles

In this stage, moral reasoning is done using ethical principles that are universal in nature. An individual acts because he or she feels it is right. This is not done to avoid punishment. It is not taken into consideration whether the action is legal, expected, or has been agreed upon earlier. 

Kohlberg found it difficult to identify those who operated at this level of moral reasoning consistently. It is, therefore, difficult to recognize or define stage six as one of the stages in moral development.

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If we include the scientists and inventors of all time, this list would be too long. So, we’ve listed only the twelve most influential scientists in this article. Now, without further ado, let’s see who they are:

1. Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Poland on the 19th of February 1473. He was a Catholic canon, mathematician, and astronomer from the Renaissance era. Copernicus developed a model that placed the sun at the centre of the universe instead of the earth. 

About eighteen centuries earlier, an ancient Greek astronomer known as Aristarchus of Samos had formulated a similar model. Nevertheless, it is highly possible that Copernicus had developed his own independent model.

2. Galileo

An Italian physicist, astronomer, and engineer, Galileo is also described as a polymath from Pisa at times. He was born as Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de’ Galilei in Italy on the 15th of February 1564. Besides inventing the thermoscope and a variety of military compasses, he also used the telescope for celestial observations. 

He was opposed by a few astronomers and the Catholic Church for contradicting the scriptures with his scientific views. Eventually, he was forced to recant and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.

3. Robert Boyle

He is renowned for his experimental gas law called Boyle’s law. It describes how the absolute pressure has an inversely proportional relationship with the volume of a gas. The only condition is that this must be within a closed system with a constant temperature. His book The Sceptical Chemist is highly regarded in chemistry.

He was born Anglo-Irish on the 25th of January 1627. Robert Boyle is regarded largely as the first modern chemist today. He was also an inventor, a natural philosopher, and physicist.

4. Sir Isaac Newton

Newton is recognized worldwide as one of the key figures in the scientific revolution. He is also considered one of the most influential scientists the world has ever seen. His laws of motion and universal gravitation dominated the world of science for quite a long time. Among his prominent inventions were The Newtonian, which was the first practical reflecting telescope. 

Born on Christmas day in 1642, Newton had devoted much of his time to biblical chronology and alchemy. In the early 18th century, he was knighted by Queen Anne. He was personally and politically associated with the Whig party.

5. Mary Anning

Born in England’s Dorset county on 21st of May 1799, Mary Anning is known for her Jurassic fossil finds. She was a fossil collector and dealer besides being a paleontologist. Her findings influenced the scientific thinking of those times about the prehistoric life on earth. Most of her finds were made in the marine beds and cliffs along the English Channel. 

Among her discoveries were the Ichthyosaur and Plesiosaur skeletons. In Britain of the 19th century, women were never allowed to fully participate in the scientific community. As a result, she didn’t often receive full credit for the contributions she made in the field of science.  

6. Michael Faraday

He discovered the underlying principles of electrolysis, electromagnetic induction, and diamagnetism. Born in Newington Butts, which was in those times Surrey’s suburban portion, Michael Faraday had little formal education. Despite this, he became one of history’s most influential scientists. 

Faraday created the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field through his research. It was on the magnetic field surrounding a conductor, which carried a direct current. Among his prominent discoveries is benzene, which he discovered as a chemist. He also held a lifetime position at the Royal Institution as a Fullerian Professor of Chemistry.

7. Charles Darwin

In his book On the Origin of Species published in 1859, Darwin described his theory of evolution with acceptable evidence. Nearly two decades later, the theory was widely accepted among the educated public and the scientific community. He neglected his medical education. Instead, he chose to help in investigating marine invertebrates owing to his keen interest in nature. 

Charles Robert Darwin was born on the 12th of February 1809 in the English county of Shropshire. He conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838 after detailed investigations. His series of research were published in several books including The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

8. Marie Curie

Maria Salomea Sklodowska was born in the Polish capital of Warsaw on the 7th of November 1934. She studied at Flying University in Warsaw, where she also began her practical scientific training. In 1895, she married Pierre Curie and came to be known as Marie Curie. Her husband was a French physicist who pioneered magnetism, crystallography, radioactivity, and piezoelectricity. 

Marie Curie pioneered the theory of radioactivity along with her husband and the physicist Henri Becquerel. For their work, they shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first and the only woman to win the Nobel Prize (two times) She was also the only person to win this coveted prize in two scientific fields.

9. Alexander Graham Bell

A scientist, inventor, and engineer, Alexander Graham Bell was born on the 3rd of March 1847. He invented and patented the first practical telephone and co-founded AT&T in 1885. Most of his life’s works were influenced by the deafness of his mother and wife. 

He experimented with hearing devices as a part of his research on hearing and speech. Eventually, it got him the US patent on the 7th of March 1876 for the telephone. And later he made many other inventions, including some major ones in hydrofoils, optical telecommunications, and aeronautics. He also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society, although he was not one of its founders.

10. Nikola Tesla

Tesla was born in present-day Croatia as an ethnic Serb on the 10th of July 1856. He was a Serbian-American inventor, futurist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer. He never received a formal education. Without receiving a degree, he studied engineering and physics in the 1870s. 

Tesla gained practical experience by working in telephony and in the new electric power company in 1880s. He also worked for a brief period at the Edison Machine Works after emigrating to the United States. He had talked about the possibilities of wireless communication in 1893. Nikola Tesla is also renowned for his design of the alternating current (AC).

11. Albert Einstein

Einstein is renowned globally as one of the greatest physicists of all time after Isaac Newton. He developed the theory of relativity, which became one of the pillars of modern physics. His formula of mass-energy equivalence became the most famous equation in the world. The intellectual achievements of Einstein resulted in his last name becoming synonymous with genius.

He was born on the 14th of March 1879 in Ulm, which was a part of the German Empire. Before he left the German Empire, he had received his primary and secondary school education. He received a PhD from the University of Zurich in 1905. In 1940, he became an American citizen. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his works in theoretical physics.

12. Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking was the first to put forth a theory of cosmology. This was explained by combining quantum mechanics and the general theory of relativity. Some of his significant scientific works include a theoretical prediction of black holes emitting radiation. This is often referred to as ‘Hawking radiation’. He discussed cosmology and his theories in general in his book A Brief History of Time. The book was on The Sunday Times best-seller list for 237 weeks.

Born on the 8th of January 1942 in Oxford, Hawking was known as ‘Einstein’ at school. He received a first-class BA (Hons.) degree from the University of Oxford in physics. He got his PhD from the University of Cambridge in 1966, despite struggling with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

We’re sure you might have understood how important the discoveries of these scientists were for all the recent technological advancements. Who according to you is the best among them? Do let us know in your comments.

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It describes the eight stages of psychosocial development, which an individual goes through in life. These eight stages are as follows:

Hope (Trust vs Mistrust)

This is the first stage in the life of humans or the infancy stage. During this stage, the infant either develops trust or mistrust towards parents or the caregiver. This is based entirely on how the child is treated. If the parents or the caregiver fulfils the child’s basic needs, he or she trusts the world. 

The infant also learns the virtue of hope. If the parents or the caregiver is unable to fulfil the child’s basic needs, the infant develops a sense of mistrust. This leads to feelings of suspicion, withdrawal, and lack of confidence in the child.

Will (Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt)

When a child is a toddler, he or she begins to explore his or her surroundings. The child still depends on the parents or the caregiver for security. However, what the child is looking for at this stage is autonomy. The toddler develops his or her interests for the first time. It can be playing with certain things or enjoying some music and dance. The parents or the caregiver needs to be careful while dealing with the child at this stage. 

If they patiently encourage their child to explore more, he or she can deal with problems independently. There are parents or caregivers who are highly restrictive or ridicule the child’s early attempts to become independent. It leads to feelings of shame and doubts in the child about handling problems.

Purpose (Initiative vs Guilt)

Children aged 5 to 8 are constantly trying to learn basic skills and understand the principles of physics. This helps them master the world around them. A child at this stage performs a task for fulfilling a purpose. Some of the qualities that a child can develop at this stage are planning, taking initiative, and leadership. 

The role of parents, caregivers, and teachers involves supporting the children’s efforts. At the same time, they must also help children to be realistic and make appropriate choices. If the adults discourage the efforts made by children, the kids develop guilt about their pursuits.

Competence (Industry vs Inferiority)

Middle childhood is when a child must deal with the learning of new skills. Children aged 9 to 12 are said to be in their middle childhood. This is the stage when children begin to learn reading, writing, recognizing individual differences, and telling time. At this stage, there is also a risk of the child feeling incompetent or inferior upon failing to learn. Children in their middle childhood are also eager to learn moral values. 

They might, at times, assert their independence by being rebellious and disobedient. They may also talk back. Parents and caregivers must allow children to discover their own talents and praise them for their accomplishments. Ridicule and punishments for their efforts will develop feelings of inferiority or incompetence in them.

Fidelity (Identity vs Role Confusion)

At this stage of life, the adolescent increasingly becomes concerned with how he or she appears to others. This stage covers the ages from 12 to 19. It involves a transition from childhood to adulthood and the child develops a sexual identity. Adolescents usually find themselves at a crossroads. The questions they have are – who they are and what they can be. 

As they embark on a path of self-discovery, they may have some disagreements with their parents or caregivers. These disagreements are usually over matters like beliefs, religion, and political orientation. This is also the time when career choices are made. Parents or caregivers can be a guide for them in this regard, but they must avoid being too insistent.

Love (Intimacy vs Isolation)

Early adulthood brings a need in young adults to ‘fit in’, as they feel afraid of rejections. There may be times when an intimate relationship is under threat from outsiders. As a result, young adults may seek to destroy or isolate things that threaten their life or ideals. Such things usually happen to those who are around the age of 30.

Once they have surpassed this age and established their identity, they can make some long-term commitments. They develop the capability of forming great relationships by the way of marriage or close friendships. If such relationships require some compromises, they are willing to make sacrifices. Those who are unable to form intimate relationships often develop a sense of isolation. This may arouse feelings of anger and frustration in them.

Care (Generativity vs Stagnation)

This is a stage when adults feel the responsibility of offering guidance to the next generation. It is referred to as ‘Generativity’. This often applies in family, society, relationships, and work. Some of the common expressions of generativity are the choice of work and disciplines that are socially valued. 

Adults aged 40 to 59 who contribute towards the betterment of society or raising a family feel a sense of productivity and accomplishment. Those who are unable or unwilling to make such contributions feel dissatisfied and stagnated.

Wisdom (Ego Integrity vs Despair)

When the adults become senior citizens, it is time for them to enjoy their retirement and explore life. They begin contemplating on the things they have achieved. If they feel that they have not been able to achieve their life goals, they develop despair and dissatisfaction. They go through depression and hopelessness.

If they believe that their life has been productive and happy, there is ego integrity and contentment in them. During this stage, they may also take a renewed interest in several things. They try to develop a sense of autonomy so that they become self-reliant to the greatest extent possible.

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The origin of modern game theory can be traced back to the early 18th century. Charles Waldegrave provided a strategic solution to the two-player version of a French card game known as ‘le Her’. The game theory became a unique concept when On the Theory of Games of Strategy was published in 1928. 

This paper was authored by John von Neumann, a Hungarian-American mathematician, engineer, computer scientist, polymath, and physicist. Later, he along with economist Oskar Morgenstern authored a book called Theory of Games and Economic Behavior in 1944. 

In the mid-twentieth century, John Nash came up with Nash equilibrium. This defined a solution for a non-cooperative game with two or more players. In a way, Nash provided a significant extension of the works of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.

What is the Game Theory?

In simple terms, game theory provides a theoretical basis to conceive social situations among the players. The game theory can be considered as a science of strategy. It assumes that players take a rational approach and tend to try hard for maximization of their payoffs. 

The outcome of each player is affected by the choices and actions of all the players involved. One of the keys to this theory is that one participant’s payoff depends on the strategy implemented by the other.

John F. Nash and the Nash equilibrium

John Forbes Nash Jr. was an American mathematician known for the valuable contribution he made to the game theory. He had made this contribution with the Nash equilibrium, which he developed in the 1950s. He is the only individual to have received both the Abel Prize and Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. 

The Nash equilibrium can also be called the ‘no regrets’ concept. It refers to an outcome, which is reached in a game. No player can increase their payoff by changing their own strategy. So, once a decision is made by a player in the game, he or she won’t have any regrets.

Application of the Nash equilibrium

The Nash equilibrium among the important concepts detailed in the game theory. It makes an effort to mathematically and logically determine the actions that players should take. These actions would result in an outcome which is in their favor. It is the applicability of this concept, which makes it so important in the real world. Whether it is a game of poker or a real estate deal, a desired outcome can be achieved.

Application of the Nash equilibrium in the real world can be understood from an example. In this example, a game is on between Edward and Samuel. Both can choose strategy ‘X’ to get one million dollars or strategy ‘Y’ to lose the same amount. So, both the players choose the strategy ‘X’ and get a payoff of one million dollars. Now, if Samuel’s strategy is revealed to Edward and vice versa, none of them would change their original strategy. 

This is due to the fact that a player’s strategy would mean little to the other. It, therefore, will not change the behaviour of either player. So, the outcome of strategy ‘X’ is a Nash equilibrium. 

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It takes into account several factors that account for evolution in different species, including humans. The most prominent factors are discussed below:

‘Evolution as Such’

All species are related and undergo gradual changes over time. Darwin’s theory of evolution states that the genetic variation in the population of species affect an organism’s physical characteristics. There are several causes of genetic variation, such as genetic recombination and mutation. 

Genetic drift and sexual reproduction play an important role in mutation and this makes it a major source of genetic variation. Some of the features acquired in this process may be advantageous for an organism. This passes on to their offspring, making them evolve further.

Natural Selection

Individual organisms are different from others in their species in some ways. This variation makes some of them better suited to the environment. Individuals with traits that put them at an advantage over others have greater chances of survival and reproduction. They pass on these traits on to their offspring and they become common in the later populations over time. 

This process of living beings adapting and changing is called natural selection. It can lead to speciation. This is where one form of species give rise to distinctly different ones. Thus, diversity of life on this planet can be explained better using this process.

Common Descent

This concept is used in a sub-field of biology called evolutionary biology. It applies when one species becomes the ancestor later in time of two or more species. In modern biology, the Last Universal Common Ancestor is considered a unique ancestor of all life forms on earth. The last universal ancestor of all the living beings of today lived nearly 3.9 billion years ago. 

Darwin first proposed the concept of universal common descent in the concluding part of On the Origin of Species. Common descent is the result of speciation. In this evolutionary process, multiple species descend from a single ancestral population.

Population Speciation

This term was coined by Orator F. Cook in the early 20th century. This was done for cladogenesis, which is an evolutionary process of the parent species splitting into two distinct species. Speciation can be classified into four geographic modes, namely allopatric, parapatric, peripatric, and sympatric. This is based on the extent of isolation of the speciating populations. 

Agriculture, laboratory experiments and animal husbandry are the other ways of inducing speciation. The extent to which genetic drift contributes to speciation is still a matter of speculation.

Gradualism

The term ‘Gradualism’ is derived from the Latin word ‘gradus’, which means ‘step’. It is a theory, which assumes that variation takes place gradually in nature and happens over time. This was a contrast to the theory of ‘punctuated equilibrium’ by the paleontologists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge. Punctuated equilibrium states that large change happens through sudden gene mutations and not gradually. 

The best example of gradualism is that of a butterfly. A species of butterfly with the colours yellow and black are visible to predators. A butterfly is born with orange and yellow colours, which predators cannot spot easily. In this case, the butterflies with yellow and black colours die out over a long period of time.

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